Eastern Kentucky University
Department of Music
Mus 555/755: Symphonic Literature
Summer Session I
M-F 9:30 - 11:00

Quicklinks:
Course Syllabus/ Course Schedule/ Listening Assignments/

Lecture Notes:
Introduction and Preface
Chapters:
1, 2, 3, 4,
5 (Romantic Period): Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Program Music, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner,
Absolute Music, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Dvorak, Franck,
Symphonic Poem, Liszt, Smetana, Musorgsky, Debussy, Strauss, Mahler,
20th Century idioms, Sibelius, Vaughn Williams, Tippett, Stravinsky, Schoenberg, Webern
*******

Print Lecture Notes as a Word Document

Introduction

Trends in history, not just music history, often present a dichotomy between tradition and experimentation. There seems to be a constant tug between established, accepted practices, and innovation. A general understanding of the style periods forces us to corral common traits and collective attributes. As we move towards the specifics we find an undercurrent of individual innovation and creative flux. Consider how long humanity thought the world was flat? That collectively accepted concept was changed by one individual's intuition, courage, and innovation. Galileo Galilei mathematically proved the world was round, and that in fact, the Earth traveled around the sun - not vice versa. His radical theories were an affront to his contemporaries. He was ridiculed by the church, nobility, and many of his fellow scientists. Music history works much the same way. Consider the war of words between Artusi and Monteverdi (and his brother) regarding whether or not lyrics were the 'mistress' of music. Here the problem is made more difficult since musical 'truths' rely on aesthetic reception, whereas scientific 'truths' can be proven concretely. People can convincingly argue for and against the validity of a musical work, Pierrot Lunaire for instance, but arguing about whether or not the Earth is round would be absurd. The common means of measuring the 'truth' in both music or science is by comparison. We learn by measuring the differences and commonalties between musical periods, composers, and their compositions.

Preface

There is often a difference between period style, the collective traits of an era, and individual style. Generally speaking, period style reflects established practices and traditions while individual style often pulls away from those norms and constraints. This dichotomy means that some composers, theorists, historians, and performers will work within the established period style while others forge differing trends and practices. Some personalities may vacillate between the two extremes depending upon the period of their life or the particular compositional genre. Consider how Beethoven's style changed between 1800 and 1825 - his addition of instruments (more horns, trombones, timpani, etc.), expansion of range, elision between movements, cyclical thematic treatment, length, multiple themes, new themes appearing in codas and developments, developments themselves, and the final addition of the voice in the 9th symphony.

This course assumes a general understanding theory and history. The text has a glossary to assist with idiomatic terms. I would highly encourage students to look outside this text to gain a complete understanding of the trends and personalities in question. Pertinent sources include:

• The New Grove Dictionary entry on Symphony, Symphonic Poem, Transformation Theme, Idée Fixe, Sinfonia, French Overture, and other specific topics and composers as needed.
• The Classical Style by Charles Rosen.
• Classic and Romantic Music by Fredrick Blüme.
• The Symphony and Symphonic Poem by Earl V. Moore & Theodore Heger (excellent analytical treatment).
• A Modern Guide to Symphonic Music by Alfred Frankenstein
• Nineteenth-Century Romanticism in Music by Rey Longyear
• A History of Western Music by Donald J. Grout.
• Anthology of Music - The Symphony (sic) A Collection of Complete Musical Examples Illustrating the History of Music edited by Lothar Hoffman-Erbrecht.
• Studying Music History (sic) Learning, Reading, and Writing about Music History and Literature by David Poultney. A nifty overview, particularly for those taking comprehensive exams,

Back to Top

Chapter 1
Antecedents of the Symphony
Baroque

• New forms appear in the Baroque: opera, oratorio, concerto, sonata, overture, cantata, fugue, dance suite, etc.
• Texture: though the overall style was polyphonic, per the Renaissance, the trend was toward homophony via solo song and Basso Continuo. Figured bass points to a deemphasis of interior voices, a polarity between bass and soprano, and a general trend toward harmonic thinking. The early Baroque/late Renaissance 5 voice texture gives way to a 3 voice texture by c.1700. The winds mostly double the strings in early orchestral works. Virtuosic writing developed over the period (Brandenburg concerti-JS Bach, the Four Seasons-Vivaldi, etc.) for string, brass, and wind instruments.
• Harmony: Rameau's Treatise on Harmony (1722) largely points to practices already in place. Homophony and tertian, and functional harmony are codependent and lay the basis for the ensuing classical style.
• Rhythm: a single pervasive rhythm dominates many baroque movements resulting in an "unending flow of pitches" (Stedman, p.3). Fortspinnungtypus is the term coined to describe this type of melody. The Classic-Romantic interplay of various note values is on the horizon.
• Melody: narrow rhythmic (moto) pallet, sequential/repetitive formulae (Fortspinnungtypus), melodies with periodic construction (antecedent - consequence) are rare at this point.
• Movements: Baroque movements work to project a single affect per the doctrine of affections. Empfindsamer stil is fast approaching with C.P.E. Bach, and the derivative Sturm und Drang style will follow in the late classic/early romantic period. These latter aesthetic doctrines encourage the dramatic in music, resulting in movements that convey a single affect or sequence of affects (moods).
• Secular music surpasses sacred music for the first time in number and popularity. Thus the reason, patronage, and need for music begins to shift from church to court, from religious ceremony to entertainment, and by the end of the period the target audience begins to include the general populace via publishing, performance, and education. All these factors point to a growing, economically empowered middleclass. Much of this new secular music is instrumental. Numerous concerti, trio sonatas, fugues, dance suites, toccatas, fantasias, etc., point to the growing importance of instrumental music as an independent genre separate from vocal dramatic forms. Even though instrumental music has existed for centuries, it is in the Baroque that this genre rises to the foray.
• Instrument design is improving. The violin family soon replaces the viols. Brass instruments become more common (horn, tpt., and trb.) along with winds (fl., ob., and bass.,). The keyboard (harpsichord mainly but also organ) is an important element in the Baroque large and small ensemble. It will drop out of the texture only to return in the piano concerti of JC Bach. Composers conducted from the keyboard for vocal works while the lead violinist conducted instrumental works with bow and body motions. Large instrumental works were the sole province of dramatic vocal forms and thus heard at church or the opera house (sinfonias, overtures, and so forth). The conductor's role was light at this point but growing in importance.
• New and improved instruments result in new musical forms (see above) like the concerto grosso, solo concerto, solo sonata, trio sonata, French overture, and Italian Sinfonia (seen-fo-neé-ah). The increased technical and expressive qualities of the violin lead to more elaborate and demanding works.
• These ensembles were small by today's standards: 10 - 20 players. Lully's 24 violins (approx. 6+6+6+6) for the King was not the norm. Monteverdi and Handel's large orchestras for vocal works and the orchestra at Bologna were the other exceptions.
• Reception theory: instrumental concerts were mostly for the privileged since nobility was sponsoring the concert. Publicly funded instrumental concerts and composer entrepreneurship slowly emerged at the end of the Baroque period (c.1725) but are common by the end of the Classical era. Opera houses had been operating throughout the Baroque period and formed the primary point of contact for the music eager public.
• Musical Form: 5 Baroque forms lay the foundation for the early symphony: trio sonata, suite, concerto (solo/grosso), Italian sinfonia, and French overture. The sinfonia and solo concerto are the only 2 of these 5 forms to survive beyond the Baroque.
  • Trio Sonata - The trio sonata lends its texture to the early symphony. Two treble voices, often moving in 3rds or 6ths, the basso continuo provided by cello and the harpsichord filling out the inner harmonies. It generally has a contrapuntal nature with 4 movements patterned after the church sonata (sonata de chiesa - slow/fast/slow/fast) or chamber sonata (sonata de camera fast/slow/fast/slow). Elements of this design continue well into the classic era and can be seen in various degrees in Haydn's Passione, Le Midi, Le Soir, and Le Matins symphonies. Though the other elements are phased out, the three voice texture continued and can be found in works by Ralph Vaughn Williams (the Classical Symphony), Penderecki, and Dvorak (New World), among others.
    
    
  • Instrumental Suite - a.k.a. Dance suite or Keyboard suite contributes the binary form per its individual movements. The minuet becomes an integral component of the early symphony. By the time of the earliest symphonies (i.e. Sammartini's Symphony in F c.1744), the dance suite was well established as a four movement form: Allemande (German), Courante (French), Sarabande (Spanish), and Jig (English). Optional movements included Gavottes, Minuets, and Bourées. The Sonata de Chiesa and the Dance suite both conveyed a 4 movement form. Binary form is significant since it leads to sonata form. Consider the diagram:

  Section	| A :|	|: B:|
  Key	1-5	5-1

  The tonal plan is significant in the motion from tonic to dominant back to tonic. Thematic material became structural when later Baroque binary works began to recall beginning thematic material from the A section at the end of the B section. The result is a Rounded Binary Form (since the beginning comes 'round again):

  Section	| A :|	|: B A':|
  Key	1-5	5-1

  Compare to Sonata form:

  Section	| Exposition (A):|	| Development (B)	Recapitulation (A')|
  Key	1-5	5	1

   

  Baroque dance movements typically have a regular 4 measure phrase structure. Furthermore, consider how the paired dances, especially Bourée, Gavottes, and Minuets lend a thematic/character influence to Sonata form:

  Section	Minuet #1	Minuet #2	D.C. Minuet #1
  Character	Quick/Busy	Slower/Emphatic	Quick/Busy
  Key	1	par./rel. minor or 5	1

  Numerous examples can be found of this,the minuets from JS Bash's Cello Suite 1011 for instance. This character design relates to the contrasting A and B themes found in sonata form, especially considering how the A theme is retrieved (recap) by the D.C. of Minuet #1. This relationship is not exact since the minuets lack development and retrieval of the B theme in tonic, but the nested beginnings of this concept are evident. The concerto forms another factor in the development of the second theme group.

  • The Concerto - The baroque concerto concept of contrast permeates instrumental music in the classic era. Some scholars feel that the contrast between large and small group statements in the concerto lead to the emergence of the second theme group. The contrast between blocks or groups of instruments forms another point of influence. Orchestral shading by combining various groups of instruments remains a popular compositional technique. Several types of concerto contribute to the modern symphony. The solo concerto and concerto for orchestra (ripieno concerto) continue to be popular forms. Their original order of movements was fast-slow-fast per the sinfonia. The concertoesque symphonia concertante featured two instruments and had a light character derived from the divertimentos. This light character is adopted by the last movement of the symphony
  • The French Overture - The French overture served as the first movement for many large dramatic vocal works everywhere except Italy. Handel and other Germans employed it frequently for their Italian operas and it was the only form Purcell used for any of his dramatic vocal works. JS Bach used it in all four orchestral suites. Comprised of a slow stately first section in dotted rhythms followed by a fast fugal section, the French overture lends the concept of introduction (often slow and stately) to later symphonists. The introduction focuses on harmonic not thematic aspects, often through chains of suspensions. The fugal allegro section did not transfer to later works because its polyphonic/contrapuntal design impeded harmonic considerations. However, the premise of preceding an allegro section with a slow introduction did. Many preclassical symphonies were either French overtures or Italian symphonias.
  • The Italian sinfonia - Here is the true predecessor to the classical symphony, a crowd pleasing "curtain raiser" with a fast-slow-fast design - like the concerto. Early works by Alessandro Scarlatti were light natured with poor thematic design - a lot of flash with little substance. First movements were homophonic fanfares. A slow chordal second movement followed by a fast dance movement in triple meter rounded out the form. As Italian opera grew to dominate Europe and Britain, the Italian sinfonia soon became the most popular introductory instrumental form.
• Composers soon wrote sinfonia independent of opera and the first collections were published between 1740 and 1750. Opera composers felt this awakening as many opera sinfonia from 1730-1740 display more design and intent than what was commonly associated with opera - as seen in the style galant works of Pergolesi which truly point toward classicism. The contributions to the modern symphony from the sinfonia include homophonic design, a large three movement form (F-S-F), and a concluding light hearted dance like movement (also from the divertimento via the sinfonia concertante)

Score Excerpts

Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713; fl.1683); Trio Sonata in F major, Op.3, No.9 (1689).

• Example of 4 movement form per Sonata de Chiesa (S-F-S-F). First two movements convey a quasi-French overture design, slow non-thematic mvmt. followed by a fast fugal mvmt. The third mvmt. show the parallel thirds common to the form. The last mvmt. has the typical baroque walking bass line. Many elements typical of the Baroque and early galant style.

J.S. Bach (1685-1750; fl.1717); Orchestral Suite No.3 in D major, Gavotte (ca. 1720).

• Example of nested binary forms (Gavotte is rounded) inside an overall ternary design. The structural importance of this tonal design must be emphasized. The winds double the strings in typical baroque style. Notice the developmental nature of the second section of the trio that points toward the development section in sonata form.

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741; fl.1709); Concerto Grosso in A minor, Op. 3, No. 8 (1715).

• The important point here is the use of contrast provided by sectional treatment - a scheme that is common in modern concerti. The concerto sectional design stood fast in the face of rococo style homophony. Sections of a movement are divided up between soloist and ripieno. Multiple sections permit multiple themes - that can occur in any order. Vivaldi demands much more solo virtuosity than is found in Corelli's trio sonatas. This means the soloist's lines are often too difficult for the ripieno section to repeat literally - as often happened with Corelli. The overall structure is a three movement form (F-S-F). The first and last movements adhere to the sectional design while the second movement is more lyrical (ariaesque?). The concertato/trio sonata style of two treble instruments and continuo appears in the last mvmt.
  

George Frederic Handel (1685-1759; fl.1722); Messiah Overture (1741).

• This work is a mature French overture in two large sections. The first is slow and stately with dotted rhythms while the second is a fugal allegro. The melody lacks periodic design and streams in an unending baroque fashion without clear cadences - but, being late in the baroque, it is still more melodically focused than earlier French overtures. The main feature that carries forward into the classic style is that of a slow introduction to the allegro section.

Giovanni Pergolesi (1710-1736; fl.1723); Sinfonia from L'Olimpiade (1735).

• Pergolesi writes a crowd pleasing "curtain raiser" for his opera seria L'Olimpiade. The work uses strings, horns, oboes, continuo, and finale trumpets and begins with the standard opening flourish of activity. Three motives quickly pass in an allegro movement that could be considered a sonatina since there is no development and the second theme returns in tonic. The work has more periodic design which points to opera practices a century earlier (clear cadences set up new themes/motives). The slow movement is a miniature sonata form that features a unifying rhythmic motive (Scottish snap). The concluding allegro is the jewel of the work. It shows more maturity than earlier works and points toward the classic sonata design: both sections repeat, there are two themes, a development (4 bars), and a dance based finale. The pervasive 1/16ths and measured tremolo place the work in the rococo period. Pergolesi delivers clear structures in the second and third movements void of counterpoint and imitation (replaced by periodic melodic structures) that point to the gallant style.

Optional Works:

• Lully Sinfonia
  
• Scarlatti sinfonia
  

Review concepts:

1. Name the 5 main precursor forms to the classical symphony and explain specifically how they influenced the symphony.
2. How did texture, rhythm, harmony, melody, instrumentation, and reception theory change during this era?
3. What is Fortspinnungtypus?
4. The birth of the symphony has two main progenitors, dramatic vocal works (opera, cantata, and oratorio), and an increase in instrumental music. Be able to discuss both and how exactly they influenced the symphony.
5. Be able to explain how binary form contains the basic elements of sonata form. Consider the larger ternary minuet-trio-minuet da capo aspects. Sonata form is a tonal structure, what is the significance of melodic return (A')? Consider the structural importance of themes/tonality.

Back to Top

Chapter 2
The Pre-classical Symphony
The Classical Period

• The rococo (1725-1775) and its style galant, Viennese classical (1770-1830; Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven) or high classical, Empfindsamer stil (1750-1780; North German school per WF and CPE Bach), and Sturm und Drang (literary derived aesthetics) combine in various ways to create the Classical period.
  • Rococo - Rococo is a period (1725 - 1775) and style galant is the noted style of that period. It marks the musical manifestation of the enlightenment movement (philosophy) - the birth of the Age of Reason during the early 1700s. Early composers include A. Scarlatti and F. Couperin. The rococo is a transitional period between the baroque and classical. It marks a shift from the complexity of German polyphony and counterpoint toward the emerging French/Italian focus on homophony and melody (largely vocal influenced). JS Bach wrote instrumental suites in the new style, but remained largely loyal to past practices. The music of his sons, JC, CPE, and WF, marks the shift in German style. From them and others (Mattheson, Telemann, etc.) it passes on into the early works of Haydn and Mozart. The combination of German, Italian, and French styles later results in the international appeal of Classicism.
  • Style Galant - a general rejection of polyphonic imitation and overlapping cadences in favor of a light, quick, elegant homophonic style.
  • Viennese and High Classical style - The Viennese period (1770-1830) corrals the works of Haydn, Beethoven, and Mozart - they worked in Vienna. The High Classical period addresses the mature works of Mozart and Haydn similar to Bach and Handel in the High Baroque (1700-1750).
  • Empfindsamer Stil - (1750-1780) worked to project "natural feelings" into music, namely within a single movement. The baroque aesthetic explored one emotion, or affect, per piece. C.P.E. Bach and the North German school are very concerned with expanding this affect.
  • Sturm und Drang - pushes past the pursuit of "natural feelings" and toward more exaggeration and forced expressiveness. The concept is adapted from literary sources.
• The Enlightenment/Age of Reason stresses balance and clarity - thus melody and phrase structure became clearly defined. Harmonic style simplifies as the numerous chord changes of the polyphonic baroque crystallize into a clear homophonic I - V - I structure. Overlapping phrases are replaced by periodic (antecedent-consequence) structures and clear cadential breaks. The meandering melodies of the baroque are replaced by short, distinct, classical motives. Counterpoint becomes the mechanism for reworking thematic material in developmental sections. Which of these practices can be traced to vocal traditions? Homophony? New forms or derivatives? Italian opera reaches its peak and the German opera tradition begins (Mozart and others).
• The formal scheme is dominated by the multi-movement sonata per the trio, church, and chamber sonata, and the dance suite. Sonata means "to sound" and relates to instrumental music like canzona relates to vocal music.
• Reception theory - the growing middleclass wants more instrumental music. They take music lessons, go to concerts, and have parlors for chamber performances. Orchestras abound in church and court. Opera sinfonias and overtures drive demand even higher and publishers respond with 'periodic overtures' - collections of opera sinfonias or overtures in a single collection. The enormous demand results in numerous cases of composer identity theft. J.C. Bach and Haydn are among the first to write and conduct concerts for subscription patrons. Haydn is among the first to become independently wealthy from music. Instrument improvements lead to more virtuosity and the greater inclusion of winds.
• Preclassical symphonies (1730-1770) roughly coincide with the rococo period. The Classical style becomes an international language with the mature symphonies of the 1770s.
• Three Schools of Symphonic Development
  • Italy - Giovanni Sammartini (1701-1775; 1738) is the primary Italian force, and the earliest symphonic composer. He wrote approximately 75 symphonies. His work points the way to an instrumental concept independent of dramatic vocal works. Many of his symphonies are string focused 3 movement forms.
  • Mannheim - Stamitz (Johann - 1737, Karl - 1772, & Anton - 1781) and Franz Richter (1749). Performers and composers at the Mannheim court made a number of contributions toward the symphony's development: 1) homophony; 2) fast tempi per the first and last movements of the sinfonia; 3) crescendo with measured tremolo in the upper strings: a.k.a. the "Mannheim roll"; 4) arpeggiation and tremolo derived from opera; 5) opening fanfare style flourish to get attention per the Italian sinfonia; 6) "Rocket Theme" - a quick theme of triadic design; and, 7) the sigh motive - an accented dissonance that resolves up by step. J. Stamitz and Monn (Vienna) are early figures to implement a 4 movement form.
  • North German - CPE (1751) and JC (1757) Bach along with JG (1737) and KG Graun (1731). Most of JC Bach's symphonies were 3 movement sinfonia style works. CPE is important because he injected his symphonic works with the expressive Empfindsamer stil and Sturm und Drang concepts. Works by the Bach brothers are some of the finest early classic period symphonies.
  • Vienna - GC Wagenseil (1746) and GM Monn (1769) also wrote in the Italian sinfonia style, and like Stamitz, had a more sophisticated sense of design. Monn's symphony in D (1740) is a mature work in four movements - most of his symphonies are in 4 movements (rare).
  • Summarized:
    • During 1740-50 composers used the French overture or Italian sinfonia form for concert symphonies. Four movement forms are rare (Monn's symphony in D). Sammartini is the main figure.
    • From 1750-60 true concert symphonies begin to appear (developmental sections, 2nd themes, etc. - Stamitz, Monn, etc. thus mainly Mannheim and Vienna) though often in 3 movements and still derived from the vocal tradition (sinfonia/Fr. overture - but now more from the sinfonia as the overture had a slow beginning and a fugal second section)
    • Between 1760-70 the sinfonia or overture style symphony was replaced by a dedicated instrumental work in 4 movements. Mozart's early symphonies (his first was at the age of 8 in 1764) are mostly 3 movement forms. JC Bach's piano concerti and CPE Bach's symphonies had a profound effect on the young Mozart.
    • Four movements: The four movement scheme is largely credited to Vienna/German composers. Monn's works were primarily 4 movements. The four movement concept comes from 3 movement works which were concluded by a dance, either a minuet or a rondo. Haydn and Mozart wrote early symphonies with minuet finales.
• Symphonic Movements:
  • First movement form had, as mentioned before, been borrowed from Fr. overtures or Italian sinfonias. The Fr. overture, by design, did not easily convert into sonata form. Its slow stately first section with dotted rhythms followed by a fugal allegro second section is an archetypal baroque structure. The concept of a slow introduction followed by an allegro movement is its primary legacy to future symphonic form. However, the binary nature of the sinfonia's first movement lent itself perfectly to the tonal/thematic demands of sonata form. It, in turn, hails from baroque dance/sonata binary designs. Recall the discussion of the minuet - trio - minuet. It is a large scale ternary shape with nested binary forms. The transitional issues here are whether a development exists and if a second theme occurs in the proper key. Late 18th and early 19th c. theorists were much more concerned with tonal structure than clearly defined themes. It is crucial to understand that a single theme aesthetic had been in place since the beginning of the baroque. Charles Rosen reports that when Haydn's Parisian symphonies, Nos. 92-94, were performed the critic for Mercure de France wrote admiringly "that while less gifted composers needed many themes to sustain a movement, Haydn needed only one" (The Classical Style, 31). When precursory baroque forms are considered: dance suite movements, trio sonatas, church/chamber sonatas, fugues, sinfonias, and overtures, etc., they all exploit a single theme.
  • Second Movements had poorly defined themes per the sinfonia tradition. They eventually became more ornate both melodically and rhythmically, as composers better understood their place in the overall scheme. These works, mainly for strings, were either in binary or sonatina form - but rarely a true sonata.
  • Finales, as in the sinfonias, were dance movements. Either the minuet or rondo served as finales in three movement works. These works were clear binaries with sectional repeats and little if any development (usually none). The minuet eventually found its home as the third movement and the rondo became the finale. The dance-like nature of the final movement is still found in many modern symphonies.
• General Style Changes:
  • Counterpoint and polyphony give way to homophony, periodic structure, and clear cadences. Counterpoint eventually returns as the development receives more attention. Haydn is the first true pioneer of developmental procedure. Mozart learned this from him as seen in his later works.
  • Melodic sequence becomes the main device for increasing length. It forms the segue to other harmonic areas.
  • The perpetual rhythm of the baroque gave way to the rapid, light, and elegant style of the rococo (galant).
  • The walking baroque bass continues into the early classic era but disappears in the high classic.
  • Developments were simple at first, if given at all. Early developments were often simple melodic sequences of earlier thematic material. Motivic extraction, fugal treatment, and counterpoint were not common in developments until late Haydn. Developmental procedures reach their peak later in the hands of Beethoven.
  • Long spun baroque style melodies persist for a while in slow (2nd) movements, but faster movements prefer short, clear, motivic ideas.
  • Early works had clear binary based sections and vague themes. By the mid to late romantic period there are clear themes and vague sections (FYI).
  • Instrumentation carries forward from the baroque. Early works are usually string focused with one or two pairs of woodwinds (oboes or flutes and horns). The harpsichord persisted until the early symphonies of Haydn and Mozart. Winds had typically doubled the strings but with technical improvements grew to provide harmonic/cadential support, textural crescendo, articulation accents, and essential secondary parts - countersubjects, harmonies, etc. The strings adopt strategies from opera and provide harmonic support via obligato arpeggiation and measured tremolo. The viola and cello gain some independence instead of always doubling the bass. Early 18th c. scoring was often in 3 parts: treble (violins), middle harmony (harpsichord), and bass (viola, cello, bass) per the trio sonata. By the late 18th c. the orchestra had expanded to pairs of oboes, clarinets, flutes, horns, trumpets, timpani, and strings - with greater part independence and less string dominance.

Score Excerpts

G. Sammartini (1701-1775; 1738); Symphony No.1 in C major, (c.1720-1740).

• The first important concert symphony composer. His work presents more of a departure from vocal influences (sinfonia/overture) and borrows from the concerto and solo sonata. This, like many of his other symphonies, is a 3 movement work (sinfonia), scored for strings with some preclassical/transitional aspects (measured tremolo; string obligato - a tactic for sustaining harmony).
  • Mvmt. 1 Allegro - Basically a sinfonia without the beginning dramatic flourish: 1) Loose multisection binary w/o repeats, 2) poor theme definition, and, 3) rococo style/rhythm (light/quick).
  • Mvmt. 2 Andante Piano - Like earlier opera derived slow movements with more harmonic than melodic interest - but it looks ahead because the melodic content has more substance than earlier slow movements.
  • Mvmt. 3 Presto - An extended binary dance form with better defined themes.

J. Stamitz (1717-1757; 1737); Sinfonia No. 8 (La Melodia Germanica No. 1) (c.1755)

• Stamitz does much to develop the symphony. Here he uses a 4 movement form (German/Viennese contribution), third mvmt. minuet-trio, increased length, motivic theme design, first movement with some effort at development, and Mannheim mannerisms.
  • Mvmt. 1 Presto - Classical foreshadowings: A clear sonata form, Mannheim roll, measured tremolo, string obligato, second theme in the dominant, well defined themes, winds gain more independence - less doubling, more harmonic sustain, reinforcing accents, presents B theme, etc. Sinfonia legacies: lack of counterpoint in development (restates and sequences theme in the nature of a development), bass maintains galant style walking rhythm.
  • Mvmt. 2 Andante non Adagio - This movement recalls earlier styles: trio sonata three voice texture for strings alone, clear binary form, and theme groups that fail to materialize.
  • Mvmt. 3 Minuet - Stamitz uses the dance suite minuet - trio form (no development here - but will happen with Haydn, then Mozart) that features the winds in the trio (it was/is common to feature a small group in the trio), winds double strings, (earlier style). Many late baroque/rococo characteristics.
  • Mvmt. 4 Prestissimo - A clear sonata form with thematic sequencing in lieu of contrapuntal development. Earlier traits include winds doubling strings and simple themes.

Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809; 1770)
(Preclassical)

• The true father of the classical symphony. The first master of developmental procedure (counterpoint, imitation, etc.). The only figure whose life spans the entire period, past the Erocia, and whose symphonic efforts spanned almost 40 years (1757-95). A man so loved that his head was stolen from the grave by admirers and was only returned to the Esterházy family in the 20th century. He was the first composer to become independently wealthy from his music. He taught both Mozart, who deeply admired him, and Beethoven, who really wanted to study with Mozart - but he had already died (their personalities clashed and that mentorship ended quickly). His exhaustive treatment of the symphony (106) and other instrumental forms like the multi-movement divertimento (160) qualify him as the first great instrumental composer/thinker. His style does not hail from vocal forms (sinfonia/overture). His crowning symphonic achievements are the London Symphonies (more later). By 1770 (his mid-life date), he had arrived at his mature style. Works before 1770 are in the early style (first 30 symphonies - but, there's a terrible chronology problem so do not rely on the number for the composition order). His roots are Austrian/German (instrumental) and not Italianate (operatic) per the sinfonia like Mozart. He employed the church sonata form, first movement sonata form, and over half of his early symphonies are in 4 movement form (much more than any of his contemporaries). His finales were often in sonata form and duple meter, not a dance or rondo in triple, which also looks toward classicism.
• His three introductory symphonies for the Esterházy court, Le Matin, Le Midi, and Le Soir, have programmatic intentions and reflect a blend of early trends and his maturing style. Each are 4 movements. The scoring recalls the trio sonata style and Haydn explores small groupings for contrast.
• Le Matin, Symphony No. 6 (1761)
  • General Concepts - Though Haydn is the father of the mature classical symphony, this work combines elements of the past by synthesizing the French overture/sinfonia, concerto, and divertimento. Concertato (concerto) textures dominate each movement complete with his signature woodwind concertino passages. The overriding concerto principle and WW features are a bit unusual.
  • Mvmt 1 Adagio, Allegro - Rococo legacies: introduction a la the French overture per slow, stately, dotted rhythms that segue to an allegro. He gives the winds the main theme which recalls the concerto or divertimento. The development is a bit scant by mature Haydn standards but is more intricate than early symphonists. Classical foreshadowings: clear form and clear themes with motivic unity. The wind emphasis is unique (points to chamber music influences). Violins have measured tremolo and sustain harmony with repeated figures.
  • Mvmt 2 Adagio, Andante, Adagio - Haydn reduces the texture to solo violin and cello (a signature trait of his - per the concerto) in the andante. It is scored for strings alone as the soloists and ripieno trade the theme with soloists adding coloratura.
  • Mvmt 3 Minuet - The concerto principle continues and the woodwinds are again featured.
  • Mvmt 4 Finale Allegro - Looks ahead by uses a duple allegro in lieu of a dance or rondo. The concerto principle continues for woodwinds and violin.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1751-1791; 1771)
(Preclassical)

• Mozart's style hails from the Italian opera tradition. He studied with numerous opera and symphonic composers (more later) but the person with the most impact on his young development was JC Bach. His Italian operas and sinfonias were popular in London and they deeply affected the young Mozart, who quickly absorbed Bach's expert handling of the galant style. Over half of Mozart's early works are in the sinfonia style. This work lacks a sense of development since those sections are simply restatements of the main theme, sequences, etc., until the B theme appears.
• Symphony No.1 in Eb Major, K.16 (1764) [Sinfonia style and form]
  • Mvmt 1 Allegro molto - sectional themes (concept reaches back past Vivaldi) instead of his mature definitive tunes. Unusual motto opening. Though young he employs secondary and closing themes, measured tremolo, winds double some but also reinforce accents and harmonies. The form is an irregular sonata due to the lack of development.
  • Mvmt 2 Andante - The harmonic focus of this second mvmt recalls the preclassic sinfonia style as his melodies are undefined without motivic structure. His more mature use of WWs continues. Older style binary form.
  • Mvmt 3 Presto - The triple meter presto is true to sinfonia finale dance traditions. The well defined tunes and short phrases hail from the galant style while the increased chromaticism in the melody points to a future Mozart signature trait.

Review concepts:

1. Compare High Baroque, High Classical, Rococo, and Style Galant. Think in terms of imitation and counterpoint, or lack thereof, periodic phrasing, sequence, rhythm (perpetual or not?) and cadence.
2. Consider the baroque doctrine of affections and how it changes via empfindsamer stil and Sturm and Drang. How do these affective doctrines manifest musically?
3. What are musical manifestations of the enlightenment (the Age of Reason).
4. How did the middleclass influence musical demand and development in the classic era?
5. Where are the early symphonic schools and what did each contribute (North German/Berlin - CPE Bach and Graun, Mannheim - J. Stamitz, Viennese - Gossman, Monn, and Wagenseil, Italian - Sammartini, Jomelli, and Galluppi)?
6. Explain how the 'true' symphony evolved from the sinfonia and overture. When and how does it shed its vocal trappings? How does each movement's complexity and character evolve?
7. Discuss how orchestration evolves from the baroque to the preclassical period (rococo). Be sure to include changes in prominence, duties, and facility. Are there any new instruments? Do any disappear?
8. Explain the early styles of Haydn and Mozart. Discuss the preclassical elements that persist and the new strategies that appear.

Back to Top

Chapter 3
The Classical Symphony

The classical symphony matures during the 1770s, around the mid-life dates of Haydn (1770) and Mozart (1771). Their works denote the High Classic period. The four movement scheme becomes the common form:

1. Mvmt 1 Fast/Serious - Sonata form: primary and second theme in contrasting tonalities, development with tonal contrast and motivic experimentation, and a recapitulation of both themes in tonic.
2. Mvmt 2 Slow - Variety of forms (variation, part form or sectional, sonata form, sonatina, etc.), often reduced instrumentation, and possible WW or Brass focus.
3. Mvmt 3 Moderate (lively) dance - Minuet and trio. Trios with reduced textures and a WW/string focus. Not a developmental form yet, but will mature in the hands of Beethoven where the middle section (dev. area) becomes a scherzo.
4. Mvmt 4 Fast/light - The use of duple meter rondos, sonata-rondos, and sonata forms. The last mvmt has a lighter nature than the first mvmt.

Baroque/Rococo Legacies:

1. Trio sonata (3 voice - paired trebs and bass) and concertato (solo/tutti) textures.
2. Second themes presented by WW or brass, strings still purvey the main theme.
3. Modulation as a developmental device.
4. Slow first movement introductions per French overture.
5. Trios featuring reduced textures of WW or strings per divertimento.
6. Dance nature of mvmt 3.
7. Light, quick nature of finale (rococo)
8. Measured Tremolo
9. Harmonic sustain via string obbligato.

Classical concepts:

1. Developments that feature motivic exploration via counterpoint, imitation, or fugal experimentation.
2. More emphasis of WW, brass, and timpani.
3. Firm 3 theme design (1st, 2nd, and closing).
4. Expanded length.
5. Definitive tunes with motivic design.
6. Expanded articulation.
7. 1/16th note countermelodies lend a contrapuntal quality.

Classical Orchestration:

1. Pairs of winds (fl., ob., cl., bass., horns, and tpt. Two timpani (increases harmonic support). Strings still present the main theme - Haydn and Mozart feature soprano winds more.
2. Brass mostly reserved for harmonic accents and sustain.

Baroque/Rococo concepts gradually left behind:

1. Three movement sinfonia form.
2. Structures with poorly a conceived theme.
3. Monothematic design.
4. Irregular sonata (loose Binary) forms, so termed because they had no development. The concept of development is crucial to the sovereignty of the instrumental genre.
5. Dependence upon vocal forms for exposure.
6. Change of purpose: from an opening work to get people seated (sinfonia or Fr. overture per opera, cantata, or oratorio) to the main event of the concert (concert symphony).

Haydn (1770)

• Refer to the preclassical discussion.
• Many of his symphonies are monothematic.
• The pioneer of developmental procedure.
• Symphony No.44 in e minor, Trauer (Mourning) (1771)
  • This symphony is from his middle period and combines elements from the past and looks toward the future.
  • Mvmt 1 Allegro con brio - Monothematic. Tight motivic design. Development begins quickly and lasts for 20 bars - substitutes for second theme. Incomplete recap. Short coda based on the theme. Orchestrally mature: winds are more independent, less doubling.
  • Mvmt 2 Minuetto - Rare use of minuet-trio as second movement form. Even more interestingly, the minuet is a canon. The trio is not developmental.
  • Mvmt 3 Adagio - Looks and acts like a dance suite binary. Understated with muted strings and occasional winds. Three voice scoring.
  • Mvmt 4 Presto - Like mvmt 1: Monothematic. Tight motivic design. Extended development (74-112) - substitutes for second theme. Incomplete recap. Resembles the dance movement in theme and design since each half uses the same thematic material.
  • Summary - This work paves the way toward Haydn's concept of a mature symphony: expressive content per Sturm und Drang (SuD), motivic themes, motivic unification, form substitution/experimentation, developmental counterpoint, rapid pace per style galant.

Mozart (1771) - Middle Period

• Torn between the lyric Italian with galant characteristics and the Austria/German (Haydn) fancy of counterpoint, development, and emotional content (SuD). Overall, the Italian lyric style remained the main creative force.
• Reaches maturity after studying with Haydn. His other tutors read like a Who's Who list of the early classic period but Haydn, JC Bach, Gluck (French dramatic content), and Stamitz were the most important.
• Absorbed the Viennese/German preference for 4 movement form.
• Occasionally places new themes in the development.
• The pioneer of melodic and harmonic chromaticism, in ways even more so than Beethoven.
• Symphony No.29 in A major, K.201 (1774).
  • Mvmt 1 Allegro Moderato - Themes intertwined with other motives (uncontrollable sense of melody), development is interrupted by new theme (multiple themes in lieu of development were often the norm - remember that contrapuntal development is the new idea and replaces this practice), Orchestration: winds rarely double strings and lend harmonic support, only scored for oboes, horns, and strings (more Italian than German). The walking bass rhythm of the galant is largely avoided.
  • Mvmt 2 Andante - Style galant work: irregular sonata form (no real development but thematic sequences and modulations reminiscent of the rococo),
  • Mvmt 3 Minuet - Tight motivic design permeates theme and accompaniment. The trio is lyrical. This movement looks back to the style galant.
  • Mvmt 4 Allegro con spirito - Sonata form with clear themes. Development presents imitative sequences of the theme.
  • Summary - Improving developmental procedures, motivic unification, and well conceived transitions.

Mozart (Late) (1788 - six weeks during the summer)

• His final 3 symphonies show his mature symphonic style (No. 39, 40, and 41). By this point Mozart had synthesized Italianate lyric opera attributes with the North German Sturm und Drang, the Mannheim effects and orchestral strategies, and the pronounced influence of his mentor - Haydn:
  • Extended forms
  • Thematic development and counterpoint
  • Motivic unity
• Symphony No.40 in g minor, K.550 (1788). This symphony is the finest of all of Mozart's symphonies.
  • Mvmt 1 Allegro Molto - Sonata form with motivic design that becomes motivic unity (a Haydn trait that Mozart incorporated late). Dissonance and chromaticism are Mozartian traits that permeate this movement - both melodically and harmonically (scholars have investigated the m2 motion that frequents this work). Mozart foreshadows romantic trends with his chromatic harmonic progressions and melodic lines. The main theme begins on an appoggiatura. The development weaves extended tonal regions with fugal treatment, counterpoint, and a countermelody in 1/8th notes in the violins. Orchestral maturity appears as the verbatim doubling of the strings by the winds ceases. They now have solo features, introduce ideas, and sustain harmonies. Strings add color with octave voicings. Clarinets were added later by revising the oboe parts. Consider the change from early classical orchestration: winds doubled strings verbatim, bassoon doubled bass line, horns were often unison, less use of trumpets, viola doubled the bass with cello, clarinets were rare if used at all, largely a three voice texture (Trio sonata/Suite).
  • Mvmt 2 Andante - Sonata form. Counterpoint continues via imitation; Mozart gives a Haydnesque dynamic surprise early with a forte Eb-7 chord amid an otherwise quite moment along with a false start at measure 69. Chromatic progressions and lines recall the first movement. The winds are featured more, a trait not uncommon since second movements were understated in general. Mozart uses the wind and string choirs antiphonally to develop material (a later romantic trait that equalizes the traditional preference for strings). The winds provide much of the harmonic support.
  • Mvmt 3 Minuetto Allegretto - The minuet form was restrictive and hard to develop motivically. Mozart avoids the problem by writing out the repeat of the A section and uses it as a development section. The trio retrieves rococo/ early classical ideas with its reduced texture and subdued voicings.
  • Mvmt 4 Allegro Assai - Mozart's creates cyclical unity by retrieving the motivic design and dissonance activity. The Mannheim rocket theme technique propels the opening to another appoggiatura. Another 1/8th note countermelody appears. Minor seconds reappear. Tonal ambiguity in the development per the first movement. A series of diminished sevenths (mm. 125-134) looks ahead to Beethoven. Orchestration resembles that of the first movement.
  • Summary - Mozart's early Italian, string focused style with little counterpoint has now evolved past Haydn's London symphonies and looks ahead to Beethoven with its dissonance and chromaticism. Symphony No. 40 foreshadows the romantic use of dissonance and chromaticism both harmonically and melodically. Mozart uses the minor second and motivic design throughout the work which provides cyclical motivic unity via 1/2 step resolution. The immediate development of thematic material is Haydnesque (late) and also looks ahead to Romantics. The ability to unify works around one or two motives is the hallmark of late Beethoven. Orchestrally, the winds are almost equal with the strings. The symphony's overall pacing recalls galant tempos.

Haydn (1771) (late works)

• The London Symphonies mark his crowning achievement and the high point of the Classical symphony. These symphonies are unique collectively and individually. Haydn's expressiveness has increased via Sturm and Drang influences, especially in slow movements. In general, to sum up his mature style:

1. More dynamic emphasis.
2. Heightened dramatic content (Sturm und Drang).
3. Greater length.
4. Increased counterpoint - especially in the development.
5. More rhythmic syncopation.
6. Harpsichord drops out of the texture.
7. Humorous elements of false reprise (recap.), Surprise, and nonmusical intent (like the farewell, the clock, etc.).
8. Use of English folk songs point ahead to romanticism.
9. Most first mvmts have a slow introduction to a fast allegro - usually duple. Most second mvmts are variation form - all slow. All third mvmts are minuets with trios - second halves became developments. Finales are brisk sonata forms or sonata-rondos - all in duple meter.
10. Theme treatment - Haydn was unique. Some second themes are first themes in dominant (remember the monothematic aesthetic). Development keys are often mediant, submediant, or plagal. Only one starts in the dominant. Most of his development themes are based on the primary theme.
11. Orchestration - Haydn uses the typical late classical cast of instruments: WWs in pairs with strings, timpani, horns and tpts. He adds triangle, cymbal, and bass drum to the Military (100) and doesn't use clarinets regularly until the second set of London symphonies (99-104). Do not miscredit Beethoven for the addition of the timpani - Beethoven's innovation lies in his melodic and featured use of the timpani.

 

Haydn came to Esterhazy Eisenstadt court in 1761. He became kapellmeister in 1766. His employer, Prince Nickolas Esterhazy, died in 1790. His son came to power and greatly reduced court activities and Haydn's duties. Haydn was contacted by Londonite Johann Salomon who convinced him to come to London and put on a series of symphonies. He left in December of 1791 saying good-bye to Mozart for the last time - Mozart dies in December of 1791. Haydn returned to Vienna in 1792. Before returning to London in 1794, he takes Beethoven as a pupil (actually came to study with Mozart), writes two quartet collections, op. 71 and 74, completes symphony No.99 and begins 100 and 101. So, the 1790s see the death of Mozart, Haydn's London symphonies, the maturation of the Classic style, and Beethoven's move to Vienna and his midlife point (1798).

• Symphony No.104 in D major (London) (1795)
  • Mvmt 1 Adagio, Allegro - Typical slow intro to a fast allegro (legacy of the Fr. overture) complete with pervasive dotted motive. Dissonant appoggiatura figure recalls Mozart's Sym. No. 40 (1788). Motivic unity with two motives that comprise the main theme. Restates main theme in dominant as second theme. The main theme is reconfigured as the closing theme. (Meaning tight motivic construction per the repeated note theme.) Haydn uses an 1/8th note countermelody in the development. The orchestration is less independent than Mozart's. Haydn uses more unisons and winds are not as preeminent.
  • Mvmt 2 Andante - Three section variation form - quasi rondo sounding, or quasi rounded binary.
  • Mvmt 3 Menuetto (Allegro) - Like Mozart did in No.40, Haydn adds developmental procedures to the minuet and trio via their second sections. An 1/8th note countermelody develops the trio's B section. Like other 3rd movements, the forces are reduced for understatement.
  • Mvmt 4 Allegro spiritoso - Sonata form. Haydn gives a false second theme start: since his second theme are often a restatement of main theme, he begins that and then follows with a true second theme. The coda works more like a second development (looking toward Beethoven again. ).
  • Summary - The work is not as progressive orchestrally as Mozart's No. 40. This may be due to Haydn's desire for the symphonies to be popular in England and thus tapered dissonance, orchestration, and chromaticism for that reason. He was profit minded. The changes in form mark his desire to avoid typical designs. By developing themes immediately after stating them, Haydn, like Mozart, looks ahead to Beethoven. They both bring developmental activity to the forefront by substituting second themes with it - as often seen in the minuets.

Review concepts:

1. How did Haydn and Mozart change symphonic tradition?
2. Compare Haydn and Mozart in regards to style: rhythm, melody, form, etc.
3. Explain how Haydn and Mozart influenced each other.

Back to Top

Chapter 4
The Symphonies of Beethoven
(1770-1827; 1798)

Beethoven's contributions to music are still being measured. He spans the classic and romantic periods and in many ways, exhausts the possibilities of the symphony. Those that follow him are haunted by his accomplishments and struggle to walk in his foot steps. Classicism produced symphonic form: a work of four or more movements comprised of a sonata form first movement, a slow lyrical second mvmt., a dance based minuet-trio-minuet, and rondo or sonata finale. It was a clearly understood language by all: audience, composer, and patron. It was functional. It had, and has, a target market. Classical works were and are popular pieces, and popular music - a simple look at the works played by any orchestra or philharmonic is permeated with works by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven - Brahms marks a continuation of this aesthetic. Do you often seen Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner? Romanticism marks a departure from form derived works. It is the birth of the individual, the artist, art for art's sake; it is a manner of personal self expression divorced from the need to explain, entertain, or defend.

Beethoven's contributions to Classicism (consider how many of these are extensions of trends originating with Haydn and Mozart):

• Expands forms - longer intros, developments, codas, but also longer expositions and virtually everything else. Codas became second developments. Some were longer than other sections.
• Replaces the minuet with the scherzo allowing more development in the 3rd mvmt.
• Increased the complexity of the variation form.
• Raises motivic unity and cyclical treatment to new heights. Some works are based on one or two short motives that constantly reappear rhythmically and/or harmonically altered. This is one of his main means of increasing length.
• Elides between movements (5th. sym. III-IV).
• Expands orchestral forces: trombones (5th. sym), piccolo, contrabassoon, and vocal forces (9th. sym).
• Thickens textures. Simply put, at any given moment there is usually more going on in a Beethoven symphony than those by Haydn or Mozart - more parts and more WW/brass emphasis. He demands more out of the players and their instruments - more range and virtuosity. The distance between bass and soprano expands. Instrumental choirs work antiphonally and more equally. Horns often introduce new themes (lyrical second). He gives frequent solos to clarinet, oboe, and bassoon. Like Haydn and Mozart, he uses octave doublings in the strings.
• He is a master of cadential extension and harmonic/melodic interruption (chaining diminished 7th chords where a cadence or theme is expected).
• Dichotomy between long lyrical lines (a romantic device) and short motivic gestures.
• Rhythm is innovative. Short, driving motives and syncopations. The 5th symphony is the first work to have a rhythmic identity apart from its melodic content. He creates contrast by juxtaposing rhythmically motivic first themes against lyrical second themes (5th sym.). Tempo changes within movements and fermatas to clear the way for new or contrasting material.
• Developmental procedures involve retrograde, imitation, truncation, pedal, and fugal treatment. He, like Haydn, often begins developing an idea or theme immediately after introducing it. Some scholars contend that Beethoven often begins with a development that later seamlessly turns into a melody.
• Greater use and range of dynamics with abrupt, terraced style changes at times. Long crescendos.

His symphonies fall into four categories (1800 - 1825):

• Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 8 are neoclassical works with no. 8 being the summation of that style.
• Nos. 3, 5, and 7 forge new strategies, push the boundaries of the idiom and pave the way toward romantic techniques.
• No.6 is the 'Pastoral symphony' and is imbued with programmatically derived musical content.
• No.9 is the summation of trends began in 3, 5, and 7, and creates a new genre with the addition of the voice.

Its simply enough to think of 1, 2, and 4 as shorter works with classical attributes, and smaller developments. These works reflect the galant rhythm that served to unite unrelated elements. These works use filler passages, unrelated cadences, and sequential devices to unite sections. Symphony no. 8 derives transitions from motives used in the themes. Galant rhythms do not dominate activity.

Symphony no.7 is the summation of trends found in nos. 3 and 5. Both nos. 5 and 7 are unified by a pervasive motive. The 7th symphony is based primarily on one motive, while the 5th is not (but close). The 5th breaks down into the normal sections and subsections, while the 7th is, for all practical purposes, a cyclical work with much more continuity.

• Symphony No. 1 (1800)
  • Classical attributes:
    • Standard four movement form.
    • Minuet not Scherzo (but evolving).
    • Slow intro per Fr. overture.
    • Galant style finale with exception of long development.
    • Classical orchestration: WWs in pairs (incl. clarinets)
  • Preromantic attributes:
    • 2nd movement sonata form (Mozart wrote a symphony with all four mvmts in sonata form.)
    • 3rd mvmt. quasischerzo.

     

• Symphony No. 2 (1800)
  • Classical attributes:
    • Standard four movement form..
    • Long slow intro per Fr. overture - but innovatively developmental
    • Classical orchestration: WWs in pairs (clarinets more featured) - though growing in emphasis.
    • Mvmt melodic style evolving from Haydn and Mozart.
    • Galant style finale with exception of long development.
  • Preromantic attributes:
    • 3 movements in sonata form: I, II, and IV
    • 3rd mvmt. Scherzo replaces Minuet (trio remains along with overall M-T-M structure).
    • Extended codas in I and IV.
    • Developmental style intro.
    • More motivic construction
    • Theme differentiation per dynamics.
    • Echo passages between instrumental choirs.
    
    
• Symphony No. 3 (Eroica) Landmark symphony as it ushers in a new symphonic style. Lays the basis for Nos. 5, 7, and 9. Beethoven originally titled this symphony the 'Heroic' symphony to dedicated to Napoleon. Beethoven saw this as the emancipation of the people and thought that the people would not govern themselves. When it became clear that Napoleon was really no different than the monarchy and even more oppressive, Beethoven was devastated. When Napoleon sacked Vienna, after swearing he would not do so, Beethoven scratched out the dedication and simply titled it 'Eroica.'
• Classical attributes:
  • Standard four movement form..
  • Long slow intro per Fr. overture - but innovatively developmental
  • Classical orchestration: WWs in pairs (clarinets more featured) - though growing in emphasis. 3 French horns.
• Preromantic attributes:
  • Greater motivic unity/construction.
  • More emphasis on counterpoint and imitation to extend and develop melodic ideas.
  • All movements are much longer - part due to development and coda extensions.
  • More complex variation form appears in the finale. Haydn had used it in slow movements (II) but Beethoven uses it anywhere he wants.
  • 3 Fr. horns instead of two. Separates cello from bass in score - thus five staves for strings (becomes standard calligraphy by Schubert's time.
• Summary:
• Mvmt 1 has a new theme in the development (a la Mozart) and coda has modulations. Coda is as long as exposition (147 ms.)
• Mvmt 2 is a song form (DC aria will become standard mvmt II form later) with a fugal section in the recap that greatly extends the mvmt.
• Mvmt 3 is a true scherzo (allegro vivace) monothhematic with a development for the second half of the scherzo. Beethoven completely writes out the trio's da capo just to change four measures from syncopated to duple (mm. 381-384).
• Mvmt 4 is a theme and 10 variations. The theme sounds like a ground (single line unison theme). Beethoven sets up the dichotomy between rhythmic initial theme and lyric second theme in the variations. Some variations are fugal (4 and 8), some are simple, 3 introduces the countermelody, 6 introduces a new theme, and 9 and 10 are excellent WW features.

• Symphony No. 4 Returns to the classic style of Nos. 1 and 2. This work is in the vein of Mozart and Haydn
  • Classical attributes:
    • Much shorter than the Eroica.
    • Grace note ornamentation in exposition per rococo/style galant.
    • Standard four movement form.
    • Long slow intro per Fr. overture.
    • Classical orchestration: WWs in pairs (WW are much more preeminent - especially in II).
    • Finale has early classical design.
  • Preromantic attributes:
    • some motivic unity/construction - primary Beethoven trait.
    • Unison passages for transition/character change (mm.121-132).
    • First use of 5 part (quasi-rondo) scherzo, very developmental
    • continued emphasis on counterpoint and imitation to extend and develop melodic ideas.
  • Summary:
    • Mvmt 1 coda is simply a cadential/motivic extension - no development or new themes (mm. 337-339).
    • Mvmt 2 is more lyrical and hints toward the romantic cantabile style. The WWs carry thematic focus. No developments restates theme with embellishments (rococo).
    • Mvmt 3 is like a rondo S-T-S-T-S and very developmental
    • Mvmt 4 is a finale with an early classic design per its multisectioned theme groupings, rushing 1/16th note galant pace (especially in the closing section). Reduced development. Dance-like in the preclassic style.

• Symphony No. 6 (Pastoral Symphony) is a program symphony. Not in the overt sense of Berlioz and the Symphonie Fantastique, but more along the oblique lines of Haydn's Le Matin, Le Midi, and Le Soir. The subtitles evoke the program:
  • Program subtitles:
    • Mvmt 1: Cheerful impressions on arriving in the country
    • Mvmt 2: By the brook
    • Mvmt 3: Peasant's merrymaking
    • Mvmt 4: The storm
    • Mvmt 5: The shepherd's hymn
  • Classical attributes:
    • Traditional forms, except V is extended.
    • Less development overall.
    • Melodic 3rds.
    • Understated 2nd mvmt.
  • Preromantic attributes:
    • 2 Trombones and piccolo as in the 5th sym.
    • WW focus (II).
    • 5 mvmt form.
    • Extended codas.
    • Mvmt 3 elides into mvmt 4, and 4 elides into 5.
    • Motivic unity/construction - primary Beethoven trait.
    • Continued emphasis on counterpoint and imitation to extend and develop melodic ideas.
  • Summary:
    • Mvmt 1 has tight motivic design. Less counterpoint than one would expect (would a dramatic counterpoint rich development convey cheerful impressions?). Thirds harmonize melody akin to the trio sonata or concertante design. Median modulations foreshadow Schubertian tonal schemes. How does this mvmt. convey its subtitle.
    • Mvmt 2 uses strings to convey the water sounds. WW focused mvmt. where the flute, oboe, and clarinet imitate the nightingale, the quail, and the cuckoo.
    • Mvmt 3 is a scherzo without repeats, though modern performances repeat the sections. Elides into mvmt 4.
    • Mvmt 4 is the storm which elides into mvmt 5 (need more on the storm).
    • Mvmt 5 is the most pastoral, horns evoke the shepherd's call (main theme). The mvmt is almost monothematic as the recapitulation and coda present variations/extractions of the main theme.
• Symphony No. 9 (Ode to Joy). This monumental work brings instrumental music full circle by returning it to its vocal beginnings - though now on instrumental terms. It is as if Beethoven had exhausted his instrumental possibilities to the point to where the only other alternative was to add the voice. His other major vocal work, the opera Fidelio, was a huge failure. Beethoven's use of cyclical motivic unity and continuous development point ahead to standard romantic practices.
  • Innovations: The numerous innovations pave the way for many 19th century practices.
    • largest orchestral force for any work of the time, plus choir and vocal soloists. Along with the typical WWs in pairs, he adds piccolo, two trumpets, two extra horns (all four are used in all mvmts. - often doubling at the octave though some 4 part playing occurs), three trombones, triangle, cymbals, and bass drum (extra percussion only used in coda of mvmt IV). The brass section is now a true orchestral choir and his line up becomes the standard for many 19th century composers.
    • Longest of his symphonies (over one hour).
    • Choral finale (foreshadows Mahler's several symphonies with voice appearing in the finale.)
    • Text is based on selected verses of Schiller's poem "Ode to Joy." The finale is a variation form with strains of the poem forming successive variations.
    • Second mvmt with added scherzo approximates sonata form.
  • Summary:
    • Mvmt 1 Allegro, ma non troppo, un poco maestoso:
      • Tight thematic unity (melodic and rhythmic) with extracted motives binding the work and its several theme groups.
      • The multiplicity of themes, all born of the same germ, point ahead to Mahler.
      • Development introduces newly derived theme. Counterpoint techniques include countermelody and fugal treatment.
      • Transitional passages provide more unity as they are derived from the main theme, introduce that theme at each appearance, and seem inseparable form it.
    • Mvmt 2 Scherzo
      • The need to have a development replaced the early binary contrasting theme in the minuet. Beethoven switches form the restrictive minuet to scherzo in no.2. Each subsequent scherzo has more development (sym. nos. 3, 5, 7, and now 9). The trio usually presents theme/character contrast since the second half of the scherzo was the development. The 9th's scherzo envelops sonata form with the addition of two contrasting themes, a full development, and a recap. of both themes in tonic. The timpani becomes a melodic soloist in mm. 195-204.
    • Mvmt 3 Adagio
      • The is a modified rondo with each A return varied to some degree. WWs are featured (typical for slow mvmts.). Melodic ornamentation.
    • Mvmt 4
      • The finale is a variation form. The vocal nature of a work (poem) with successive verses lends itself to this form.
      • Long intro with bass string recitative. The chord in ms. 208 has all 7 notes of the d minor scale.
      • The program (ode) is one of universal joy with sacred overtones. The ninth variation is a double fugue. The coda is extremely long and incorporates vocal soloists and choir.
      • The addition of the voice tot he symphony becomes the example for composers like Mahler.
    • Summary: Comparing symphonies nos. 1 and 9 show just how far Beethoven expanded and innovated the form. As noted before, Beethoven's use of cyclical motivic unity and continuous development (as in the rondo) point ahead to standard romantic practices. His works form an example that many romantic composers carefully follow.
      

Score Excerpts

Symphony No.5 in c minor (1807).

• Overview - This work, more than any other before it, sets the precedent for future symphonic works. It expands upon the innovations of the Eroica and points the way to Brahms and Berlioz. Its motivic unity, both rhythmic and melodic, reaches far beyond any similar structures by Haydn or Mozart. The recurrence of this motive gives the work cyclical unity across movements and helps propel the sense of one large structure. It introduces new ideas, forms a transition between sections and creates a deep sense of cohesion. Beethoven extends the codas, employs developmental expositions, elevates the development of the scherzo, and expands the classical concept of variation to include elements of sonata form. Beethoven's use of WW almost put them on equal footing with the strings, though the latter still introduces all of the primary themes.
• Mvmt 1 Allegro con brio - The rhythmic motive is introduced. It will later have six melodic variations. Theme groups occur as multiple second (B, C) and closing themes (D, E) occur (see Stedman, p.77). The development employs antiphonal treatments of the motives by echoing instrumental choirs.
• Mvmt 2 Andante con moto - A variation form with binary/developmental first theme treatment. Beethoven later develops the theme orchestrally and dynamically. Cyclical unity occurs as the viola recalls a variant of the rhythmic motive. Mediant modulations from c minor to Ab major occur.
• Mvmt 3 Scherzo (Allegro vivace) - Restatements of the A1 and A2 themes are developmental/varied. The A1 theme is derived from the rhythmic motive in mvmt 1. The trio forms a fugal development of the B theme. The return (da capo) is varied and developed - not a verbatim repetition. A long transition based on the scherzo's second theme forms the segue into mvmt 4.
• Mvmt 4 - Textural emphasis (thicker/louder) occurs with the addition of piccolo, 3 trombones (funeral connotations), and contrabassoon - his first symphonic use of these instruments. Multiple themes with the second theme (B) serving as the closing theme. The transitional/concluding scherzo theme is retrieved in the development and serves again as a bridge to the expositionary material (recap.). The coda is almost as long as everything that came before it with an added presto section and a lengthy cadential extension.

Symphony No.7 in A major (1812).

• Overview - The 7th symphony is unified by a single motive that permeates each movement than the 5th symphony's motive. Beethoven imbues this work with more affect than those before it. His use of variation form continues in the second movement. The scherzo continues its developmental trends while the finale combines the best of classic (dance nature) preromantic (development/length) attributes. Even more striking is that his innovations are cast in a form with three dance style movements (I, III, and IV - very classical). The orchestration continues his featuring of the WWs and his contrasting choir concept (strings - WWs). The brass is not as prominent as in the 5th symphony. He continues to give the strings more independence; the viola has its own part (not bass doubling) and the cello separates from the bass in the score at key points. Less octave doubling overall. The timpani is used like the brass was in early symphonies: accents, harmonic reinforcement, and cadential emphasis. Timpani rolls help build dynamic climaxes. Its use to emphasize the rhythmic nature of thematic motives - including one melodic solo (mm.315-319) - is new and forward looking.
• Mvmt 1 Poco sostenuto, Vivace - Sonata form with extended introduction. Comparing this introduction to that of the 1st symphony shows his maturing style (it would also be a good paper topic). This intro has two main themes which are in turn developed. His innovation transitional strategy previously discussed reappears: extracting a motive, developing it and fashioning it as a segue. Or, foreshadowing the coming theme by extracting a motive from it to form its own segue (finale). Here the segue seamlessly connects the intro and the exposition. Both themes of the exposition can be subdivided and each component can be traced back to the unifying motive. Look at page 84 and see how the vivace theme (unifying motive) forms the basis of the others themes. Consider when the derivative is rhythmic, melodic, or both. He again weaves a countermelody that accompanies the B theme (here B2), the bass motive, and the final contrapuntal section of the exposition. The development is saturated with counterpoint. The rhythmic motive periodically blasts into the texture. The motive is treated fugally and imitatively. Beethoven switches the main theme's orchestration in the recap to full orchestra versus its first appearance with WWs. The coda immediately modulates but developmental procedures continue as he places pedal point in the winds and a variation of the pedal in the violins over a two measure ground bass figure. The harmony is simply tonic-dominant for the most of the section (consider again how Mozart's chromaticism and harmonies were ahead of the time).
• Mvmt 2 Allegretto - This movement again combine variation form with another form, now song form with a trio. The five part sectional form weaves the countermelody of variation 1, borrowed from the main theme, into the variations that follow. The main point here is to consider how Beethoven consistently juxtaposes a rhythmic motivic idea (theme) against a subsequent lyrical counter melody.
• Mvmt 3 Presto - Beethoven borrows Haydn's knack for false reprise in this five part form as he alludes to a return that turns out to be another development. Each statement of the theme is followed by a lengthy development per his desire to continually expand and develop the scherzo.
• Mvmt 4 Allegro con brio - Sonata form (Haydnesque) Beethoven keeps the light dance nature of the finale true to early classical traditions. He does this with less development, thus less counterpoint and more theme motives (more singable). The motivic unity of the first movement gives way to sectional successions of motives, largely unrelated, in the finale. The main theme is derived from the Irish folk song "Nora Creina" (see D on p.87). Beethoven earned some extra money by composing accompaniments for Irish folk tunes for George Thomson (publisher). Beethoven foreshadows the second theme group by fashioning a transition from that group's theme. The closing section turns harmonic, per Haydn, and loses its melodic focus. The development recalls Haydn and Mozart as it begins with a verbatim restatement of the beginning theme spread over several modulations (tonal contrast). There is little counterpoint in this Haydnesque development (even the exposition uses repeat signs). The coda returns to Beethoven's true form. It has more counterpoint the development and retrieves the first theme.

Symphony No.8 in F major (1812).

• Overview - The 8th symphony marks the final culmination of classically derived Beethoven symphonies. It continues the trends found in symphonies 1, 2, and 4 and presents a union of Beethoven's past and progressive tendencies. The vestiges of the past include shorter overall lengths, clear forms and formal elements, less expressiveness, a three part traditional and more lyrical minuet (instead of his development rich scherzo), measured tremolo in mvmts. I and II (violins), and a quicker second movement (sonatina). The trends carried forward from symphonies 3, 5, and 7 include developmental codas in mvmts. 1 and 4, the use of counterpoint in developments and codas, imitation in the second movement, and an orchestral style similar to symphony no. 7 featuring contrasting choirs of WWs (with horns) and strings.
• Mvmt 1 Allegro vivace e con brio - No introduction. Tutti statement and development of the principal theme's two sections. The third permeates this movement. Motivic extracts form transitions (retrievals and foreshadowings). The development features fugal treatment of the 1st theme (mm. 144-179) with stretto (mm. 167-179). The recap omits some development and restates the themes. The coda begins with a modulation and then develops the first themes. A 16 bar cadential extension features antiphony between the wind and string choirs as they echo the final chord and then retrieve the first tune.
• Mvmt 2 Allegretto scherzando - The sonatina style (binary form) of the second mvmt points to the past per Haydn. The winds were traditionally featured in this typically understated movement, but not here as Beethoven features the strings on the first two themes. The form breaks down into three melody groups with transitions. The second section features some thematic variation (substitutes for development) of the themes and the coda simply truncates the first theme.
• Mvmt 3 Tempo di Menuetto - Beethoven retrieves the classic minuet in lieu of the more developmental scherzo for the third movement - but not totally devoid of development. It is similar to the 1st symphony's minuet. This work is more lyrical and less rhythmic (often mutually exclusive traits). Both second sections are lightly developmental - without dense counterpoint. Motivic extraction provides the closing theme. The scoring reverts to the past as winds are featured in the trio (divertimento and early symphony).
• Mvmt 4 Allegro vivace - Compared to the other movements, this is a complex form - a sonata-rondo with tight motivic construction, contrapuntal development, and lengthy codas (Beethoven's progressive side returns). Beethoven surprises everyone with a melodic interruption in measure 17 that lasts a full measure (C# in F major). The development begins in tonic (like many preclassical works) and features fugato treatment of the A2 theme and dense contrapuntal treatment. Before the recap, the theme is presented in A major and the strange C# is then harmonized, foreshadowing the full explanation to come in the coda. The recap restates the exposition including the C#. The coda begins with modulations that eventually prepare the C# as the dominant in F# minor before continuing to rework the other themes. A new theme is introduced as the coda combines elements of recap and development. A 64 measure closing formula, the longest he ever used, winds toward the ending comprised of 6 consecutive authentic cadences and 14 repetitions of the final chord.

Review concepts:

1. Understand the classical and romantic groupings of his symphonies and know a little about Nos. 6 (Pastoral - programmatic/nature) and 9 (sym + voice) inconjunction with those in the required listening section.
2. Many scholars remark that Beethoven's symphonies simultaneously mark the apogee of the classical period and introduce romantic period trends. Explain how this is so?
3. How, or why, did Beethoven change the minuet into the scherzo? What changed in regards to form, development, and character?
4. How does orchestration change with Beethoven?
5. How does the art of transition change with Beethoven?
6. Many scholars talk about how Beethoven juxtaposes rhythmic themes against lyrical themes, give an example of this.
7. How does Beethoven manifest romantic phrases like: "art for art's sake," "the rise of the great man," and so forth, discuss how the position of the musician changed over time.
8. How was Beethoven received in his own day?
9. Who commissioned his first large public concert?
10. Explain how Beethoven innovated sonata form.

Back to Top

Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony

Overview:
Many elements change in the wake of Beethoven:

1. Two practices evolve in the wake of Beethoven: absolute and programmatic music. A rivalry develops between them and the debate at times is rather intense.
2. The number of symphonies, as a genre in 'absolute' terms, drops significantly per composer and for the period as a whole. Composers were confronted with the problem of what to do with the symphony after Beethoven. He had expanded, developed, and innovated symphonic form to what many consider to be its final conclusion. His shadow loomed large over anyone wanting to work in the symphonic medium - hence the push toward programmatic designs.
3. Programmatic composers metamorphose the symphonic concept into symphonic poems (Liszt) and tone poems (R. Strauss).
4. Cyclical ideas like the idée fixe (Berlioz) and the leitmotif (Wagner) become the new standard unifiers. Thematic transformation (Liszt) raises the cyclical concept to another level.
5. Generally speaking, symphonic form is a tonal form - a collection of movements with formal constraints dependent upon tonal introduction, contrast, and recall. Thematic recall, born of the rounded binary, concerto, and Da Capo design, add further structural unity. These elements are musical elements devoid of programmatic intent. Once the tonal and formal design is altered beyond recognition, as with Wagner (tonal) and Strauss (formal), the traditional concept of the symphony no longer exists. These changes occur in the hands of the programmatic composers. Their formal and tonal designs are program derived - not dependent upon absolute idioms. In many ways this change recalls the debate between Artusi and Monteverdi. It was Monteverdi's "secunda practice" that caused such a stir with traditionalists. The unprepared dissonances, unusual leaps, and chromaticism that shocked his contemporaries were not musically derived, but were instead derived from the lyrical content.
6. Melody becomes more personal, expressive, less formulaic and periodic. Expression is often realized through increased dissonance and chromaticism - melodically, harmonically, and tonally (remember Mozart?). These trends manifest in all romantic composers but Wagner pushes chromaticism to the extreme. Distant and unexpected modulations begin to appear.
7. Strict contrapuntal development and procedure declines while the freer use of countermelodies and other contrapuntal melodic strategies expand amid the quest for lyric melodies (Berlioz and Tchaikovsky). These long spun melodies with elaborate extensions and tangents often have more nested motivic development than most Beethoven symphonies. Brahms once remarked that any melody that sounded splendidly tunefully and natural, as if it was conceived in an instant, surely took many hours to create. Cyclic ideas become the main unifier.
8. Forms vacillate from miniature to massive. New forms include the symphonic poem, tone poem, music drama, program symphony, and lyric works for solo piano. Concertos, string quartets, and other pre-romantic forms also continue. The concept of a four movement work with breaks between movements, gradually melts into one long, complete, fully integrated work in the hands of many romantics.
9. Orchestration probably marks the most innovative romantic trend. Composers worked toward a more integrated presentation of melody that involved many instruments from several sections. The dual choirs of strings and winds melt into cross sectional blends of romantic timbral contrast. Composers continue to expand the orchestra. The quest to combine instrumental and vocal forces continues in the hands of Mahler, Wagner, and others.
10. The character of the movements also changed. Some scherzos are slow, others are quick. Some finales are somber and nolonger dance oriented: Brahms' Sym. No. 4 is a passacaglia/chaconne, several of Mahler's finales are serious and feature the voice (Primeval Light).
11. Consider the trends born in the classic era that expand in the romantic:
    • Expansion of the size and range of the symphony - Beethoven.
    • Expansion of form -Beethoven.
    • Elision between movements - Beethoven.
    • Woodwinds and brass focus/independence - Beethoven.
    • Voice as an addition to the symphony - Beethoven.
    • Developmental forms/structures - Begins with Haydn then Beethoven.
    • Motivic unity - Haydn, Mozart (mainly No.40), and Beethoven
    • Cyclical treatment - Haydn and Beethoven.
    • Chromaticism and dissonance (melodic and harmonic) - Largely Mozart.
    • Lyrical melody - Mozart then Beethoven.
    • Programmatic/extramusical content - Haydn (Le Soir, Le Midi, Le Matin, and the Lamentation) and Beethoven's 6th symphony.

Romantic traits:

1. The concept of patronage, where the composer is an employee of the church or court, is replaced by entrepreneurial endeavors, commissions, concert series, publications, etc. - Haydn's life is an example of this transition.
2. The concept of functional music is replaced by art for art's sake - without need of explanation. The vision of the composer is paramount - not subservient to the whims of the church, nobility, or public. The artist begins to see his or her self as nobility (or even greater) because of their gift and talent. Beethoven said, "I look around me and I'm better than every man I see." He even paid for a dining bill by writing a short composition on the wall, telling the owner, "here, this will more than pay for the bill" (my paraphrase). Compare this mentality with composers working during the council of Trent (Gesualdo and Palestrina), Bach pleading for more money from the city council and complaining about his inept musicians, and, Mozart suffering from his own inability to work within the church/court system. Haydn was a self made millionaire in today's terms by the time he died. Beethoven sponsored his own first concert. It lasted over 4 hours and included, among other works, his first symphony and his first piano concerto.
3. What was an international style, from the baroque through the classic period, becomes an individual style with often nationalistic overtones. Composer's strive to be innovative and unique. They want to separate their works from the stereotypes around them. The romantic period marks the birth of the individual.
4. Geopolitical reasons also factor into this equation. The symphonic form was seen by many as an elitist product whose target market was those of privilege - this is especially so of the minuet. The American and French revolutions sparked an international quest for freedom and self determinism. The rise of the common man. Forms associated with bureaucracy of the past: church, state, and nobility in particular, were less popular. Consider how it influenced the transition in opera towards librettos that related more to the common people. Also consider how the industrial revolution begins to affect the public: mass migrations to the cities, long difficult work days, and the poverty associated with this global change.

Only 15 or so composers from this lists on pp. 98-99 continue to appear on modern concert programs. From that list, maybe 50-60 works enjoy continued popularity (Stedman's list is a bit conservative in this area).

Back to Top

Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Franz Schubert (1797 - 1828; 1812)

Schubert lived to the age of 31 and still managed to write over 900 works, including 9 symphonies. His life was quite secluded and most of his works, especially the larger ones, were not performed until after his death. He studied with Antonio Salieri at the Viennese Imperial court (Salieri also taught Mozart, Beethoven, and Liszt). His accomplishments include works for voice (several operas, Lied, and Song Cycles), string quartet, and piano. He lived a very meager and humble life. Financial troubles caused him to sell his possessions several times, including his piano. He was also a guitarist and several of his works were first conceived on guitar then transferred to piano - often because he had no piano at the time. He dedicated his life to his music with the exception of a failed school teaching stint (his father was a school master). There has been a bit of speculation regarding his alternative life style. His quest for knowledge was immense and he even began counterpoint lessons a month before he died from syphilis. A friend of his remarked that "everything he touched turned to song" (Yudkin, p.326). His first 6 symphonies point more to Haydn and Mozart than Beethoven. His commonalties with Haydn and Mozart include:

• Classical orchestral size
• string focus in most fast movements.
• Galant rhythms (rushing 1/8th notes).
• His first 3 symphonies have introductions that retrieve elements of the French overture.
• The first 5 symphonies have minuets, not scherzos, though their character is more scherzo than menuetto.
• Repetition with key contrast is his primary developmental device.

His more original aspects include:

• More color orchestration, especially in keeping the violins an octave apart in many melody lines.
• More adventuresome key relationships - many median relationships.
• His use of folk melodies (an ensuing romantic trait). Bear in mind that these elements also show up in Haydn and Beethoven.
• Extreme focus on melody - he's very much an extension of Mozart in this way.

His last two symphonies show his maturing style:

• Increased brass writing.
• Greater emphasis on WWs than Beethoven - Schubert often introduces themes with them.
• More expressive (lyrical)
• Larger works, a la Beethoven.

Symphony No.1

• Slow intro (Fr. overture) sets up exposition and development.
• Classic Alberti bass accompanies main theme in finale.
• Finale rhythm is galant style rush of 1/8th notes.

Symphony No.2

• Slow intro (Fr. overture) mixes dotted rhythms with Schubertian octave scoring. Appoggiaturas are very galant.
• Mvmt 2 is variation form with rounded binary theme. Solo WWs are featured in several variations.
• Minuet with scherzo personality (like No.1). Development is thematic repetition over several key areas.
• Mvmt IV is rondoesque procession of themes in a repeated exposition with an extended development of the first theme.

Symphony No.3

• Intro is similar No.2.
• Mvmt I has some cyclical aspects.
• Mvmt II is simple (early classical style).
• Mvmt III Minuet like no.2 (scherzo style with folk theme trio).
• Mvmt IV Presto vivace is very Haydnesque. Dance meter (6/8) galant tempo. Typical Schubertian development - more tonal than motivic - with several distant modulations.

Symphony No.4

• This work emulates Beethoven's C minor quartet (scherzo and major/minor contrasts).
• Intro is less Fr. overture derived with only a few melodic flourishes (ornamental scale runs). Canonic activity between bass and soprano is interesting and unlike Schubert. The Allegro's rush of 1/8s recalls the galant rhythm. Schubert modulates through several median and distant keys.
• Mvmt II is simple in design with Rococo measured tremolo
• Mvmt III minuet is for all purposes now a scherzo - very little of the earlier form remains except for the folk like trio.
• Mvmt IV is another finale which is build on a series of alternating thematic material (rococo). This obfuscates any large scale melodic design. He reverts to the old practice of using the galant rhythm (rushing 1/8ths) to unify the work. The development is a series of key changes.

Symphony No.5

• Is many ways modeled on Mozart's G minor symphony No. 40 and is his most popular early symphony (Longyear, 72).
• Has no intro. Is similar to the finale of No.3 - galant rush of 1/8th notes and small orchestra.
• Mvmt II is a simple rounded binary with repeat brackets for both sections (very preclassical). Measured tremolo accompanies the main theme.
• Mvmt III continues to be a point of expansion for Schubert. This minuet is also scherzo-like and each section has been expanded - including the folkish trio.
• Mvmt IV the finale is again very much in the style of Haydn: rounded binary outline and the exposition is repeated.

Symphony No.6 (Rossini Style)

• Symphony No.6 is a bit unique being Schubert's single symphonic imitation of the Italian style. Slow intro recalls the Fr. overture style but now combined with tighter motivic design and more expressive dynamics. Rossini's overture style is borrowed: grace notes on triplets in WWs and strings, parallel thirds, etc. point to the allegro's Italian opera overture grand curtain raiser style.
• Mvmt II continues the Rossini borrowing - a very lyrical Italianate tune (accented dissonances, triplet embellishments, etc.). The middle section features Italianate grace note figures.
• Mvmt III is now labeled a scherzo for the first time - its length and development are his most extensive yet. Italian um-pah-pah accompaniment in the trio.
• Mvmt IV has sonata formal elements but reduces to a series of three thematic groups in the first section that is repeated with slight tonal contrasts for a development, ending with a recap.

Symphony No.9 (The Great C Major)

• Numbering and chronology problems plague Schubert's cataloguing. No.9 use to be called No.7. He has 8 complete symphonies. Chronologically, the 7th is the Unfinished and the (Great) C major is the 8th. His orchestration is larger and similar to Beethoven: WWs in pairs, horns, trumpets, 3 trombones, timpani, and strings. The movements are longer and more complex and motivic unity/design displaces much of the folk theme emphasis. This is his largest and most ambitious work. Schumann said it had a "heavenly length" and it had a large impact on later symphonists, especially his most logical successor, Anton Bracken (Longyear, 75).
• Mvmt I - The slow intro is much more original and in rondo form. The themes (exposition) are developed (for Schubert that usually means repeated/extended) as soon as each is introduced. The development works out each theme, simultaneously at times in a very Beethovenesque manner. (Play this development - its his best).
• Mvmt II - Sonatina style that reverts to his classical treatment of mvmt II in the earlier symphonies.
• Mvmt III - This scherzo expands to a complete sonata form per Beethoven. The trio does not reduce or simply state a folk song but instead presents a lyrical theme with full orchestral force.
• Mvmt IV - Another finale that presents a succession of three theme groups. Each are motivically unified and developed as soon as introduced (Schubert style - repeated and motivically extended in various tonalities). The frequent key changes in the development are typical Schubert relationships. The coda becomes another development section (Beethoven) for the main themes with tonal contrast.

Study Examples

Schubert: Symphony No.8, b minor (Unfinished) See footnote for analysis and score (Stedman, p.105)

• Overview - This work is important for its lyricism and is accordingly one of the top five most performed works. It is a total departure from his early works. It is also important as the WWs become the primary purveyors of thematic material - a true innovation. Schubert's expressive orchestral scoring shows a lot of parity between the choirs - though brass is still used for accent and harmonic support. He also scores the cello and bass separately at times in each movement. The formal innovation is significant. Schubert's first theme is lyrical as opposed to rhythmic. In fact, all of his themes are lyrical: 3 themes in the exposition including a lyrical rerendering in the development. The permeating lyricism of the romantic period and the arrival of a lyrically based sonata form is seen in this work by Schubert.
• Mvmt I Allegro moderato - Again, he innovates the sonata form first theme by making it lyrical as opposed to a 'rhythmic attention getter.' The traditionally rhythmic nature of first movement allegro A themes had been in place since the sinfonia. The A theme divides into two sections. The first (strings) introduces the second (main - WWs) which then serves, along with the B theme, as the main objects of the development. The exposition features three lyrical themes. The recap omits the introductory segment. The development is extensive but lyrical since the main theme is varied, treated canonically, and set with a countermelody. The whole design hints at cyclical thematic treatment. The introductory material permeates the recap and the coda and the second theme idea recurs in the closing section.
• Mvmt II Andante con moto - This sonatina form hints at a development section at the end of the exposition by canonically treating the B theme. Its minor - major contrasts (C# minor - Db major) in the second theme form a particularly appealing moment (Longyear, 72).

Back to Top

Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847; 1836)

Mendelssohn was the son of banker and a member of affluent society. He was also Jewish and therefore persecuted because of this by Wagner (posthumously) and others. His family did everything possible to conform - even converting at an early point to Christianity (Felix was 7). His compositions aside, he was equally innovative as an early conductor (Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and later the Berlin Opera) and orchestrator, and a champion of prior composers. He premiered Schubert's Great C Major symphony when it was discovered and also premiered Schumann's symphony No.1. His revival, at age 20, of JS Bach's St. Matthew's Passion is the prime example. Its performance was a huge success and led to a resurgence of JS Bach's works. It marks the main point in music history when musicians quit rejecting the past as antiquated and obsolete, but instead revived it with reverence and appreciation. Mendelssohn remarked, "of course - Bach's music needs to be re-orchestrated... To think that it should be a Jew and an actor (Mendelssohn's friend) who give back to the people the greatest of all Christian works." (Yudkin, p.249) His creative output includes numerous piano works (Songs Without Words) and several string quartets and quintets. He is best known for his orchestral works.

Mendelssohn wrote 5 symphonic works and some incidental music. One of the symphonic works, No. 2 (Lobgesang), combines symphonic form with a cantata. The rest are four movement forms. His style extends the classical style in many ways:

• His forms are conservative.
• His tonal schemes are conservative.
• He is not a chromatic composer. He uses some melodic dissonance for expressive affect, but is in general not chromatic.
• His harmonies generally reflect those of Haydn and Mozart with the exception of a V13 chord at some cadences, more focus on second inversion chords, and some parallel harmonies (consecutive minor chords for instance).
• He was, as mentioned, an avid Bach admirer and was a master of contrapuntal technique - as can be seen in his developmental procedures. He played the Bach keyboard works (as did Schumann), and subsequently wrote in several baroque forms: chorales, preludes, and fugues.
• He rarely expands the late 18th century orchestral concept: WWs in pairs, horn, trumpet, timpani, and strings.
• His order of movements and individual movements are generally conservative except: he reverts to a scherzo like minuet for his first symphony (III); the Scottish (Sym. No.3) has a fast II (scherzo) and a slow III; the Italian (Sym. No.2) uses the Låndler (song) form for III and has a saltarello as IV; and the Reformation (Sym. No.5) has a fast (scherzo) II and a chorale with variation for IV.
• He's not considered a programmatic composer though he did express extramusical content in his Midsummer Night's Dream incidental music and vague inferences in his Italian and Scottish symphonies.
• His orchestration is generally rooted in the late 18th century, though he does add trombones and extra horns in two symphonies. He has a penchant for pizzicato.

Symphony No.1 (1824 - age 15)

• strange second movement form and key scheme. This modified sonata form moves through Eb, Cb, Bb, B, and Eb. Any hints of development are by tonal contrast. The finale has fugal development section and more counterpoint in the coda.

Symphony No. 2 (Lobgesang)

• 3 movement sinfonia introduction (blast from the past) followed by a ten movement cantata (uses variation form due to the text's verses). Commemorates Gutenberg's invention of movable type 400 years earlier (check this out).

Symphony No. 3 (Scottish)

• Considered to be his finest symphony and is skillfully linked by motto themes (for a topical analysis, including motivic breakdown we will look at Longyear, pp.91-93, and possibly his article "Cyclic Form and Tonal Relationships in Mendelssohn's "Scottish" Symphony," In Theory Only, IV (1979), 38-48.)
• The earliest four movement symphony designed to be performed without a break between movements. Mendelssohn wrote this in his directions and also supplied "attaca" in the score.
• AB(B is development)A intro leads into the sonata Allegro. Extensive counterpoint in the development.
• Mvmt II is a folk song based scherzo that resembles a sonata form.
• Mvmt III is slow and lyrical.
• The finale has a new tune in the coda that resembles a tune in mvmt I (thus cyclical).

Symphony No. 5 (Lobgesang)

• The Reformation symphony commemorates Martin Luther's confession of 1530. It borrows motives and tunes from Protestant songs and a chorale prelude ends the work (typical of Cantata form). The intro borrows the Parsifal theme which recurs in the ensuing allegro (cyclical).

Study Examples

Symphony No. 4 in A major (Italian)

• Overview: Mendelssohn's Italian symphony, like his other symphonic works, points to the continuation of earlier classical Viennese traditions. It is his most popular symphony. He is conservative and nostalgic in regards to form, chromaticism, and tonal scheme. The Saltarello finale recalls the renaissance in name and sectional treatment and baroque/classical dance character. His contrapuntal skills were exceptional for the time and mark his connection to Bach and Baroque style/forms in general. His symphonies contain a fair amount of developmental counterpoint during a time when those practices were neglected in lieu of lyrical melody and other expressive procedures. His scoring utilizes late 18th century forces and strategies including a more traditional role for the WWs. His more progressive traits include motivic connections between the first and final movements (cyclical - like Beethoven's Sym. No.7) and a waltz style mvmt III.
• Mvmt I Allegro vivace - This sonata form features octave string scoring (Schubertian) for the main theme. A new theme appears in the development (Mozart/Beethoven) and treated fugally for 42 bars and reaches four voices at times (baroque influence). The principle theme motive (2 bars) are then weaved into the fabric and eventually take precedence as the fugue activity dissipates. The fugue's main theme is then presented by the full orchestra for 21 bars (274-295) until a ground bass passage segues to the recap. (consider the numerous baroque elements).
• Mvmt II Andante con moto - Slow movement in sonatina form, walking baroque bass line countermelody, WW focus and presentation, and four voice counterpoint at times (so many preclassical/baroque nuances). His cross-sectional treatment of the themes (WWs and strings - with WWs dominant) look to the future along with his octave doubling of the themes.
• Mvmt III Con moto moderato - Folk style influences (romantic trait) that point to the waltz. It looks like a traditional minuet form but sounds continuous due to extensive development of the theme.
• Mvmt IV Saltarello - Binary form (the original renaissance structure presented dance themes in successive contrasting sections with repeats). The recurring A theme followed by different themes for each section give the work a rondo feel, but the continuous development of the theme works against that notion. A triplet figure provides motivic unity for the first half. The fugal and antiphonal activity, along with other traits already mentioned show Mendelssohn's penchant for the past.

A Midsummer Night's Dream

• Mendelssohn's best orchestral writing appears in his programmatic overtures. Their connection to the play often leaves them neglected in the literature. It is an excellent example of sonata form and along with his other dramatic overtures, stands "midway between those of Beethoven and the symphonic poems of Liszt." (Longyear, p.90)

Back to Top

Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Robert Schumann (1810-1856; 1833)

Schumann suffered from mental illness throughout much of his life, but it intensified drastically in his latter years ("not schizophrenia but a manic-depressive psychosis" - Longyear, p.98). His psychosis and creative output seem to coincide during his moderately manic moments (see below, from Yudkin, p.260). He aspired to become a concertizing pianist but severely damaged his ring finger with a device he invented in 1832 to train his fingers for independence. With his playing career over, he focused on composition and his wife, pianist extraordinaire Clara Schumann, performed many of his (and her own) works. Her notoriety as a performer often clouded his own success and visibility. Clara was invited to perform at party in Moscow, after the performance the diplomat introduced him to the others as Mr. Clara Schumann. The relationship between Clara and Johannes Brahms grew to a scandalous point after Robert's illness worsened and he was institutionalized. He died of self-starvation two years later in 1856. His importance as a composer, music critic, historian, and music journal editor cannot be overestimated. He revered Bach's Well Tempered Clavier, playing through it regularly and working diligently with counterpoint - even writing fugues based on B-A-C-H. He occasionally used the letters of his name, and other words to derive key relationships and motives. Much of his romantic influence was literary - his father owned a bookstore and he became a voracious reader. It is through Schumann that the literary concept of romanticism begins in music. His wrote many character works for solo piano. Carnival presents a masked ball procession of short character pieces that represent his own dual personalities of Florestan and Eusebius, among other characters (Bach, Clara, Paganini, etc.). His song cycle Dichterliebe, along with those Schubert, and Wolf, form the romantic period bench marks in this genre.

Schumann's symphonic style bridges aspects of the Viennese tradition with romantic trends. He works to expand forms and increases the role of the brass section by often using 4 horns, 2 trumpets, and 3 trombones. His brass focus gives his works a heavy, dense sound at times. His use of counterpoint relies on countermelodies more than imitation, unlike Mendelssohn. Schumann conveys romanticism through chromaticism (lyricism), melodic dissonance, and tonal experimentation. He, like Mendelssohn often features appoggiaturas and suspensions in slow movements. His formal innovations are the most important:

• Retrieves themes in later movements (cyclical themes - this idea begins motivically with Beethoven's 5th.)
• More continuous symphonies - either a very short pause or no break at all for almost half of all his movements.
• Later themes are at times derived from the motives of earlier themes (another cyclic device). This idea permeates his fourth symphony. It also explains some trio themes - based on the scherzo.
• Sonata forms often leave out the development or the recap or combines both into one section.
• New melodic ideas appear in developments and codas (Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert).
• The scherzo continues its experimental persona.
• Programmatic trends - His program for his first symphony (subtitles) was later withdrawal and he later avoided admitting any direct source of inspiration. He also changed the fourth symphony's title from Symphony Fantasy to simply Symphony No. 4. His title switch would suggest a rejection of programmatic trends and a return to absolute ideology. His works, especially those for piano, reflect varying degrees of programmatic intent.
• Schumann has been accused of po